As part of UniSA's international research strategy to build relationships with India, Professor Caroline McMillen, PVC and Vice President (Research and Innovation) would like to encourage staff to submit applications under the following schemes. These funding opportunities will be updated periodically as new information becomes available, so please check this page regularly.
Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia
Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research
Asia Public Sector Linkages Program
Association for Canadian Studies in Australia and New Zealand
Australia-India Council Funding
Australian Academy of the Humanities
Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research in Sustainable Agricultural Development
Australian Research Council
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR)
Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research (DIISR) - new
East-West Center
Human Science Frontier Program
Ian Potter Foundation
Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Wellcome Trust
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Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia
Exchange Programme - Australia and India
In 2005, The Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia (ASSA) signed an exchange agreement with the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) in Delhi. Research scholars in the social sciences, who are Australian citizens, are eligible to apply to participate in this program. The aims of the program include collaboration between Australian and Indian scholars, the opportunity for access to research and research materials not easily accessible outside the countries concerned and the development of networks of scholars with related interests, both within and between the two countries.
The Academies facilitate visits by scholars to specific research institutes or conferences in India, preferably for periods of one or two weeks. Applicants are strongly discouraged from taking family members with them. The scholar is responsible for international excursion fares to the capital city of the host country and the host provides local transport, meals and accommodation as outlined in the Exchange Agreement.
Further information: Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia website
Internal closing date: 5 September 2008
External closing date: 19 September 2008
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Asia-Pacific Network (APN) for Global Change Research
APN website (updated information expected closer to submission date)
ARCP Programe
The Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research invites applications for its annual regional call for proposals for the ARCP Programme. APN is an intergovernmental network whose mission is to enable investigation of change in the Earth's life support systems as it occurs in the Asia-Pacific region. APN's science agenda focuses on climate; ecosystems, biodiversity and land use; changes in the atmospheric, terrestrial and marine domains; use of resources and pathways for sustainable development; crosscutting issues and science policy linkages.
APN is prepared to support activities in the area of global change as relevant to APN's thematic areas and relating to:
synthesis and analysis of existing research
new research which addresses knowledge gaps in key areas
research planning and scoping activities
the development of policy products such as integrated assessments, impact assessments, climate models, etc.
Applications are invited from members of institutions based in APN member or approved countries: Australia, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Mongolia, Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Russia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, USA, Pacific Island Countries and Singapore.
The average grant awarded in 2006 was approximately $42,000.
Internal closing date: TBA
External closing date: TBA
CAPaBLE programme
The Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research invites applications for its CAPaBLE programme. APN is an intergovernmental network whose mission is to enable investigation of change in the Earth's life support systems as it occurs in the Asia-Pacific region. APN's science agenda focuses on climate; ecosystems, biodiversity and land use; change sin the atmospheric, terrestrial and marine domains; use of resources and pathways for sustainable development; crosscutting issues and science policy linkages.
APN is prepared to support activities in the area of global change as relevant to APN's thematic areas and relating to:
scientific capacity development for sustainable development
science-policy Interfacing
awareness raising activities
Dissemination activities.
Applications are invited from members of institutions based in APN member or approved countries: Australia, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Mongolia, Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Russia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, USA, Pacific Island Countries and Singapore.
Internal closing date: TBA
External closing date: TBA
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Asia Public Sector Linkages Program (PSLP)
The Asia Public Sector Linkages Program aims to improve public sector capacity for governance and management for nationally determined development outcomes in selected partner Asian countries.
PSLP offers departments and agencies of Australian federal, state and territory governments, as well as Australian public universities, the opportunity to compete for grant funding that will:
transfer capacity-building skills and expertise to their public sector counterpart institutions in partner countries
support strengthening of sustainable development-focused public sector bilateral and regional linkages.
There are three PSLP funding rounds yearly, opening at the beginning of March, July and November respectively.
Further information: AusAID website
Internal closing date next round: February, June and October - 2 weeks prior to external closing date
External closing date for next round: In 2008 there will be three rounds which are scheduled for February, June and October.
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Association for Canadian Studies in Australia and New Zealand
Canada-Asia-Pacific Awards
This award will support scholars in universities or research institutes in the Asia-Pacific Region to undertake short term research, including collaborative research, contributing to the understanding of bilateral and multilateral relations between Canada and the countries of the Asia-Pacific Region. The award will assist with direct costs related to the research project, and, when a research trip to Canada is warranted, will provide assistance towards international airfare and a weekly flat rate allowance for a period not exceeding five weeks.
Awards may be granted for:
1. research projects related to Canada and Asia-Pacific relations, either with the region as a whole, or any part thereof. Topics will be within the areas of social sciences and the humanities, as well as some professional schools, such as business studies, economics, law, international relations, public administration, history, politics, sociology, geography, arts, literature, linguistics, linguistic duality, education, communications policy, media studies, planning, science policy, social administration, environmental studies, architecture, and other related fields
2. interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary studies
3. comparative studies in which Canada represents a substantial part of the work, normally 50%.
Awards will be available to scholars and researchers from:
Australia -- People's Republic of Bangladesh -- Brunei -- Kingdom of Cambodia -- People's Republic of China -- Hong Kong -- India -- Indonesia -- Japan -- Republic of Korea -- Malaysia -- Mongolia -- New Zealand -- Pakistan -- Republic of the Philippines -- Singapore -- Sri Lanka -- Taiwan -- Thailand -- Vietnam
Further information: Canada-Asia-Pacific Awards
Internal closing date: 2 weeks prior to external closing date
External closing date: 23 November annually
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Australia-India Council (AIC)
The Australia-India Council invites applications for its funding for projects which are likely to promote long-term contact and cooperation between Australia and India. Priority is given to activities in the following areas:
arts (including literature and film)
education
social (including health and sport)
science/technology/environment
public policy activities (including media links)
Support is available for individuals or organisations in Australia. The AIC does not generally fund travel and accommodation for attendance at conferences or meetings, nor participation in fieldwork or sporting or other events.
Further information: AIC website
Internal closing date: Monday 7 July 2008
External closing date: Monday 21 July 2008
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Australian Academy of the Humanities
Travelling fellowships
The Australian Academy of the Humanities invites applications for its travelling fellowships to support research overseas. Eligible fields within the humanities include the arts, Asian studies, cultural and communication studies, classics, literature, European languages and cultures, history, linguistics, philosophy and religion, and prehistory and archaeology.
10 travelling fellowships of up to $4,000 for short-term - not less than two weeks - research abroad in the coming year, are available to permanent resident scholars in Australia, who require access to resources held overseas.
Further information: Australian Academy of the Humanities website
Internal closing date: 17 July 2008
External closing date: Applications, including references, are due by Thursday 31 July 2008
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Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research
Research in sustainable agricultural development
ACIAR supports partnerships that create opportunities for Australian researchers to work with overseas agricultural researchers on issues of common concern. Their major focus, as part of Australia's overseas aid program, is to support research that contributes to sustainable agricultural development in the Asia-Pacific region.
Project proposals are welcome throughout the year, rather than inviting submissions at a particular time. There is a standing invitation to all who share the ACIAR commitment to research in sustainable agricultural development, both in Australia and in the region, to explore the possibility of an ACIAR-funded partnership.
India: Indicative research priorities
ACIAR has a formal program of consultations with India to establish priorities in research collaboration. In 2007–08 the program will continue to emphasise agricultural policy, crop production and management, broad-scale land and water resources management, and livestock nutrition.
The ACIAR contact point is ACIAR's Deputy Director responsible for R&D Programs, Dr John Skerritt, on +61 2 6217 0559 or skerritt@aciar.gov.au.
Further information: ACIAR website
Internal closing date: 14 days before submission to ACIAR
External closing date: Applications can be submitted at any time
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Australian Research Council (ARC)
ARC Linkage International Awards
ARC Linkage International Awards provide funds for Australia-based researchers to participate in joint research projects with overseas researchers, establishing new collaborations and strengthening ongoing collaborations that build links among researchers, research teams and/or centres of research excellence in Australia and overseas.
ARC Linkage International Fellowships
ARC Linkage International Fellowships (ARCIFs) provide salary and associated funding to outstanding research fellows to work in eligible Australian or overseas organisations. There are a number of International Fellowship types available for periods of up to 12 months.
Internal and external closing dates
Further information: Australian Research Council website
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Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
Global Health Program Grant
The Foundation has a focus on accelerating access to existing vaccines, drugs, and other tools to fight diseases that disproportionately affect developing countries, and supports research to discover new health solutions that are effective, affordable, and practical for use in poor countries.
The foundation accepts Letters of Interest in the following three areas:
priority diseases and conditions
other health conditions
critical enabling strategies
Grantmaking areas funded through requests for proposals (RFPs) only:
Critical enabling technologies
Community health solutions
Emergency relief
Further information: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation website
Internal closing date: 14 days before submission to the Foundation
External closing date: Applications can be submitted at any time
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Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR)
Endeavour Research Fellowships
The Endeavour Research Fellowships provide financial support for postgraduate students and postdoctoral fellows from participating countries to undertake short-term research (4-6 months), in any field of study, in Australia.
The Endeavour Research Fellowships aim to:
enable high achieving scholars from participating countries to undertake research in Australia
further develop Award Holders' knowledge and skills in their field of research
strengthen bilateral ties between Australia and the participating countries
showcase Australia's education sector
strengthen mutual understanding between the people of Australia and Award Holders' home countries
build international linkages and networks.
Further information: DEEWR website
Internal closing date: 17 July 2008
External closing date: 31 July 2008 (see Key dates for applicants for more details)
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Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research (DIISR)
1. International Science Linkages Programme
The International Science Linkages programme aims to assist Australian researchers to increase their participation in international leading edge scientific research, to leverage access to international research funds, to raise the profile of Australian research, and to support the development of strategic alliances between Australian researchers and international researchers and industry. The ISL programme will increase Australia's capacity to attract overseas R&D investment, promote innovation, and increase the economic and social impact of Australian research.
The objectives of the ISL programme are to:
increase the uptake of leading edge Science and Technology (S&T), through:
• promoting access to and participation by Australian researchers in strategically focused, leading edge, international scientific research and technology
• increased strategic alliances between Australian and overseas researchers
facilitate Australia's access to the global S&T system by supporting bilateral and multilateral relations with other countries.
Further information: DIISR website
2. Strategic Research Fund
The Australia-India Strategic Research Fund (AISRF) facilitates and supports science and technology research cooperation between Australia and India. The AISRF assists Australian researchers to increase their participation in leading edge scientific research with Indian counterparts, raises the profile of Australian research, and supports the development of strategic alliances between Australian and Indian researchers.
Support available
Competitive funding support is available for collaborative projects and workshops covering a range of mutually agreed priority areas. Under the Indo-Australian Biotechnology Fund, these areas are:
vaccines and medical diagnostics
biomedical devices and implants
nutraceuticals and functional foods
transgenic crops; stem cells
bioremediation.
Priority areas for the Indo-Australian Science and Technology Fund are: agricultural research; environment sciences; astronomy and astrophysics; microelectronic devices and materials; nanotechnology; renewable energy; marine science; and earth systems science.
Applications for funding will be accepted from: tertiary education institutions; Cooperative Research Centres; Australian registered businesses; registered industry groups; Australian public sector research agencies; and Australian private, not for profit, research organisations.
How to apply
Applications for funding for Indo-Australian Science and Technology Fund and Indo-Australian Biotechnology Fund grants will be assessed on a competitive basis against specific criteria. The Australian and Indian Governments will bilaterally determine which applications for funding are successful.
Applicants should refer to the AISRF Guidelines
Further information: contact International Science Branch by email: aisrf@dest.gov.au or by phone: (02) 6240 9387 or visit the DIISR website
Internal closing date: Friday 12 September 2008
External closing date: Friday 26 September 2008 at 17:00 PM AEST
Please direct queries and your applications for submission to the Business Development Manager in your area.
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East-West Center (EWC)
Visiting Fellowships
The East-West Center is inviting applications for its visiting fellowships. The following research themes have been selected:
an interdisciplinary framework for emerging infectious disease risk assessment
agricultural transformation and the well-being of small farm households in eastern India
very low fertility in East Asia
policies to reduce poverty through tourism development in Asia
the role of renewable energy in meeting the climate challenges in APEC - China's capitalist transition.
Independent research projects are also possible, related to one of the research program study areas: politics, governance and security; economics; population and health; and environmental change, vulnerability and governance.
The EWC seeks scholars of high accomplishment and promise whose work and presence will contribute creatively to the development of its research areas and to the Asia Pacific region. Applicants must have a PhD or equivalent. Funds for these fellowships come from two sources. US government funds support scholars from the US as well as from Asian or Pacific countries. Funds are also available to support a limited number of scholars from other areas whose work focuses on the Asia Pacific. Fellowships are typically awarded for between two and four months.
Further information: East-West Center website
Internal closing date: 17 July 2008
External closing date: 31 July 2008
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Human Frontier Science Program (HFSP)
Program Grants
The Human Frontier Science Program invites applications for its programme grants. The HFSP aims to support research into fundamental biological problems with the involvement of other disciplines such as chemistry, physics, mathematics, computer science or engineering. The grants are available for projects concerned with basic approaches to understanding the complex mechanisms of living organisms. All members of a team must be in a position to initiate and direct their own independent lines of research, and must have responsibility for their own laboratories. They must be within five years of obtaining an independent position but must have obtained their PhD or equivalent not longer than 10 years before the submission deadline.
Principal applicants must be from a non-profit institution in a member country: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Cyprus (EU part only), the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, the Republic of Ireland, the Republic of Korea, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and the US. Awards are worth up to $450,000 per year. The HFSP supports novel, innovative and interdisciplinary basic research focused on the complex mechanisms of living organisms; topics range from molecular and cellular approaches to systems and cognitive neuroscience. A clear emphasis is placed on novel collaborations that bring biologists together with scientists from fields such as physics, mathematics, chemistry, computer science and engineering to focus on problems at the frontier of the life sciences.
Further information: HFSP website
Call for Letters of Intent is now closed
Internal closing date for 2008: March 2008
External closing date for 2008: March 2008
Young Investigators Grants
Human Frontier Science Programme invites applications for its young investigator grants. These support novel collaborations that bring biologists together with scientists from other scientific disciplines to focus on problems at the frontiers of the life sciences.
Principal applicants will have completed one or two periods of postdoctoral training and be appointed to staff positions that allow them to conduct independent research. All members of the grant team must be within five years of obtaining an independent position but must have obtained their PhD or equivalent not longer than 10 years before the submission deadline. They must be from a non-profit institution in a member country: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Cyprus (EU part only), the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, the Republic of Ireland, the Republic of Korea, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and the US. Awards are worth up to $450,000 per year.
Further information: HFSP website
Call for Letters of Intent is now closed
Internal closing date for 2008: March 2008
External closing date for 2008: March 2008
Fellowships
Postdoctoral Fellowships are available for scientists who wish to work in foreign laboratories, with emphasis on individuals early in their careers who wish to obtain training in a different field of research. Fellows who return to their home countries are eligible to apply for a Career Development Award.
Cross-Disciplinary Fellowships: Cross-disciplinary fellowships are intended for postdoctoral fellows with a Ph.D. degree in the physical sciences, chemistry, mathematics, engineering and computer sciences who wish to receive training in biology.
Long-term Fellowships provide young scientists with up to three years of postdoctoral research training in an outstanding laboratory in another country. The third year of the Long-Term Fellowship can be used either for repatriation to the Fellow's country or in the host laboratory. The fellowships provide approximately $US 45,000 per year, including allowances for travel and research expenses. To be eligible, a fellow must either come from or go to a member country.
Further information: HFSP website
Internal closing date: Mid August 2008
External closing date: Next deadline to apply for a Fellowship will be at the end of August 2008. The online application form and the new guidelines will be available in July 2008.
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Ian Potter Foundation
Travel Grants
The Foundation’s competitive early career travel grants program is distinctive in Australian philanthropy. The grants made are small, generally of between $2,000 and $3,000, and are paid to the individual's employing organisation. Most travel grant recipients in the past have been staff from universities or research institutes, but those working in the Technical and Further Education (TAFE) sector are encouraged to apply and staff of any organisation with deductible gift recipient status are eligible.
Applications are normally considered at four meetings of the Board of Governors.
Further information: Ian Potter Foundation website
Internal closing date: 2 weeks prior to external closing date
External closing date: 25 January, 27 March, 30 June and 6 October 2008
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Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
International exchange programme with Eastern Europe, India and Australia - Short working visits
The Academy supports the international transfer of knowledge and science through funding. It awards grants for working visits and researcher exchange programmes.
Target group: senior researchers
Object: working visits, generally lasting one to two weeks, during which the researcher gives guest lectures and becomes acquainted with colleagues abroad. Most agreements specify a maximum number of days.
Exchange agreements have been signed with:
Indian National Science Academy
Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia and the Australian Academy of the Humanities.
Further information: Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences website
Internal closing date: 14 days before submission to the Academy
External closing date: Applications can be submitted at any time. An application form should be accompanied by an invitation letter from your host.
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Wellcome Trust
International senior research fellowship in biomedical science (India and South Africa)
The Wellcome Trust invites applications for its international senior research fellowships in biomedical science. The awards support outstanding researchers, either medically qualified or science graduates, who wish to establish a research career in an Indian or South African academic institution. Applicants should have between five to 10 years' experience at a postdoctoral level or clinical equivalent and have a substantial record of publications in leading international journals. Candidates should normally have spent a significant period of their postdoctoral (or equivalent) research career working outside their chosen country. Applications will be accepted from scientists who are currently overseas or who have returned to the country where the fellowship will be held. Scientists working outside their own countries who wish to return home are particularly welcome to apply. Exceptionally, proposals will be considered from those who have pursued careers entirely in-country. Applicants must have a sponsor at their host department who will guarentee space and facilities. Candidates need not be nationals of the chosen country.
Fellowships last for five years and include a salary, research expenses and travel costs.
Eligibility: Australian citizens are generally eligible to apply, however, to confirm this is the case you could get in touch with a member of staff in the funding stream for your subject area.
Contact email addresses and telephone numbers
Posted by Ramesh at 7:40 PM 0 comments
Research funding
Research funding is a term generally covering any funding for scientific research, in the areas of both "hard" science and technology and social science. The term often connotes funding obtained through a competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by government, corporations or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most developed countries is between 1.5% and 3% of GDP; Sweden is the only country to exceed 4% [1].
Most research funding comes from two major sources, corporations (through research and development departments) and government (primarily carried out through universities and specialised government agencies). Some small amounts of scientific research are carried out (or funded) by charitable foundations, especially in relation to developing cures for diseases such as cancer, malaria and AIDS.
In the OECD, around two-thirds of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by universities and government, although in poorer countries such as Portugal and Mexico the industry contribution is significantly less. The US government spends more than other countries on military R&D, although the proportion has fallen from around 30% in the 1980s to under 20%[1]. Government funding for medical research amounts to approximately 36% in the U.S. The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in social science and humanities. Similarly, with some exceptions (e.g. biotechnology) government provides the bulk of the funds for basic scientific research. In commercial research and development, all but the most research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialisation possibilities than "blue-sky" ideas or technologies (such as nuclear fusion). One of the most famous exceptions is the innovation-favouring environment of the 1970s at Xerox Parc, where various ideas including the computer mouse were developed. Similarly, IBM's research into quantum computing has been going on for some years, and it will likely be some years more before it yields commercially available technology.
Government-funded research
Many governments of developed countries provide considerable funds (primarily to universities) for scientific research (in fields such as physics and geology) as well as social science research (in fields such as economics and history). Much of this is not intended to provide concrete results that may be commercialisable, although research in scientific fields may lead to results that have such potential. Most university research is aimed at gaining publication in peer reviewed academic journals.
Influences on research
Funding influence on research
A 2005 study in the journal Nature surveyed 3247 US researchers who were all publicly funded (by the National Institutes of Health). Out of the scientists questioned, 15.5% admitted to altering design, methodology or results of their studies due to pressure of an external funding source. In a contemporary study published in the New England Journal of Medicine, a similar proportion of the 107 medical research institutions questioned were willing to allow pharmaceutical companies sponsoring research to alter manuscripts according to their interests before they were submitted for publication.
Political and social influence on research funding
Occasionally some research is politically controversial; in the US, there have been cases of controversy over research into sexually transmitted disease, and restrictions on federally funded research into stem cells.
Research funding process
Often research funding is applied for by scientists and approved by a granting agency to financially support research. These grants require a lengthy process as the granting agency can inquire about the researcher(s)'s background, the facilities used, the equipment needed, the time involved, and the overall potential of the scientific outcome. The process of grant writing and grant proposing is a somewhat delicate process for both the granter and the grantee: the granter wants to choose the research that best fits their scientific principles, and the grantee wants to apply for research in which she has the best chances but also in which she can build a body of work towards future scientific endeavours. This interplay can be a frustrating and lengthy process.
However, most universities have research administration offices to facilitate the interaction between the researcher and the granting agency. "Research administration is all about service—service to our faculty, to our academic units, to the institution, and to our sponsors. To be of service, we first have to know what our customers want and then determine whether or not we are meeting those needs and expectations.” Robert A. Killoren, Jr., Associate Vice President for Research, Office of Sponsored Programs, Penn State U, Fall 2005. From P. Lowry (2006) Assessing the Sponsored Research Office.
The National Council of University Research Administrators (NCURA) serves its members and advances the field of research administration through education and professional development programs, the sharing of knowledge and experience, and by fostering a professional, collegial, and respected community.
Posted by Ramesh at 7:39 PM 0 comments
Hypothesis
A hypothesis (from Greek ὑπόθεσις) consists either of a suggested explanation for an observable phenomenon or of a reasoned proposal predicting a possible causal correlation among multiple phenomena. The term derives from the Greek, hypotithenai meaning "to put under" or "to suppose." The scientific method requires that one can test a scientific hypothesis. Scientists generally base such hypotheses on previous observations or on extensions of scientific theories. Even though the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often used synonymously in common and informal usage, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific theory. A Hypothesis is never to be stated as a question, but always as a statement with an explanation following it. It is not to be a question because it states what he/she thinks or believes will occur.
In early usage, scholars often referred to a clever idea or to a convenient mathematical approach that simplified cumbersome calculations as a hypothesis; when used this way, the word did not necessarily have any specific meaning. Cardinal Bellarmine gave a famous example of the older sense of the word in the warning issued to Galileo in the early 17th century: that he must not treat the motion of the Earth as a reality, but merely as a hypothesis.
In common usage in the 21st century, a hypothesis refers to a provisional idea whose merit requires evaluation. For proper evaluation, the framer of a hypothesis needs to define specifics in operational terms. A hypothesis requires more work by the researcher in order to either confirm or disprove it. In due course, a confirmed hypothesis may become part of a theory or occasionally may grow to become a theory itself. Normally, scientific hypotheses have the form of a mathematical model. Sometimes, but not always, one can also formulate them as existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon under examination has some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of universal statements, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic.
Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions by reasoning (including deductive reasoning). It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction may also invoke statistics and only talk about probabilities. Karl Popper, following others, has argued that a hypothesis must be falsifiable, and that one cannot regard a proposition or theory as scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being shown false. Other philosophers of science have rejected the criterion of falsifiability or supplemented it with other criteria, such as verifiability (e.g., verificationism) or coherence (e.g., confirmation holism). The scientific method involves experimentation on the basis of hypotheses in order to answer questions and explore observations.
In framing a hypothesis, the investigator must not currently know the outcome of a test or that it remains reasonably under continuing investigation. Only in such cases does the experiment, test or study potentially increase the probability of showing the truth of a hypothesis. If the researcher already knows the outcome, it counts as a "consequence" — and the researcher should have already considered this while formulating the hypothesis. If one cannot assess the predictions by observation or by experience, the hypothesis classes as not yet useful, and must wait for others who might come afterward to make possible the needed observations. For example, a new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible.
In the United States of America, teachers of science in primary schools have often simplified the meaning of the term "hypothesis" by describing a hypothesis as "an educated guess". The failure to emphasize the explanatory or predictive quality of scientific hypotheses omits the concept's most important and characteristic feature: the purpose of hypotheses. People generate hypotheses as early attempts to explain patterns observed in nature or to predict the outcomes of experiments. For example, in science, one could correctly call the following statement a hypothesis: identical twins can have different personalities because the environment influences personality. In contrast, although one might have informed one's self about the qualifications of various political candidates, making an educated guess about the outcome of an election would qualify as a scientific hypothesis only if the guess includes an underpinning generic explanation.
Evaluating hypotheses
Karl Popper's hypothetico-deductive method (also known as the method of "conjectures and refutations") demands falsifiable hypotheses, framed in such a manner that the scientific community can prove them false (usually by observation). According to this view, a hypothesis cannot be "confirmed", because there is always the possibility that a future experiment will show that it is false. Hence, failing to falsify a hypothesis does not prove that hypothesis: it remains provisional. However, a hypothesis that has been rigorously tested and not falsified can form a reasonable basis for action, i.e., we can act as if it is true, until such time as it is falsified. Just because we've never observed rain falling upward, doesn't mean that we never will--however improbable, our theory of gravity may be falsified some day.
Popper's view is not the only view on evaluating hypotheses. For example, some forms of empiricism hold that under a well-crafted, well-controlled experiment, a lack of falsification does count as verification, since such an experiment ranges over the full scope of possibilities in the problem domain. Should we ever discover some place where gravity did not function, and rain fell upward, this would not falsify our current theory of gravity (which, on this view, has been verified by innumerable well-formed experiments in the past)--it would rather suggest an expansion of our theory to encompass some new force or previously undiscovered interaction of forces. In other words, our initial theory as it stands is verified but incomplete. This situation illustrates the importance of having well-crafted, well-controlled experiments that range over the full scope of possibilities for applying the theory.
In recent years philosophers of science have tried to integrate the various approaches to evaluating hypothesis, and the scientific method in general, to form a more complete system that integrates the individual concerns of each approach. Notably, Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend have produced novel attempts at such a synthesis. Both men also happen to be former students of Popper.
Research is defined as human activity based on intellectual application in the investigation of matter. The primary purpose for applied research is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe. Research can use the scientific method, but need not do so.
Scientific research relies on the application of the scientific method, a harnessing of curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world around us. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organisations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines.
Historical research is embodied in the historical method.
The term research is also used to describe an entire collection of information about a particular subject.
Posted by Ramesh at 7:37 PM 0 comments
Publishing
Academic publishing describes a system that is necessary in order for academic scholars to peer review the work and make it available for a wider audience. The 'system', which is probably disorganised enough not to merit the title, varies widely by field, and is also always changing, if often slowly. Most academic work is published in journal article or book form. In publishing, STM publishing is an abbreviation for academic publications in science, technology, and medicine.
Most established academic fields have their own journals and other outlets for publication, though many academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields.
Academic publishing is undergoing major changes, emerging from the transition from the print to the electronic format. Business models are different in the electronic environment. Since about the early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has been very common. Presently, a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is open access. There are two main forms of open access: open access publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is freely available from the time of publication, and self-archiving, where the author makes a copy of their own work freely available on the web.
